ampersand (&) Use the ampersand when it is part of an organization’s formal name (Baltimore & Ohio Railroad). The use of the ampersand is appropriate in the Oberlin College logo and as a design element in promotional material. In running text, the ampersand should not be used in place of and.

Correct: Oberlin College and Conservatory

Incorrect: Oberlin College & Conservatory

apostrophe (’) Use an apostrophe to indicate that a noun is possessive. See **possessives** in the alphabetical listings.

brackets ( [ ] ) Use brackets to add explanations or corrections to quoted material: Before I knew what happened,” said the coach, “he [Devlin] had scored.”

Use brackets as parentheses within parentheses: The game has been immortalized in articles and a book (Harry Walters, The Game that Went Down in History [New York: Good Sports Press, 1987]).

bullet (•) Bulleted items that conclude an introductory sentence should be lowercase and punctuated with a comma or semicolon at the end of each item except for the last. Use the word and before the last bulleted item, and end the sentence with a period.

Applicants to Oberlin College must

Bulleted items that are not part of an introductory sentence may be upper- or lowercase and may end with either periods or no punctuation. Be consistent with a format within any given context:

Area residents enjoy a variety of seasonal recreational activities:

Use a space between the bullet and the first word of each item.

colon (:) The colon is a mark of anticipation. It indicates that what follows the mark will complete or amplify what came before it. Use a colon to introduce a list or series. Do not use a colon between a verb and its complement or object.

Correct: The dean named three likely candidates for the award: John Doe, Mary Smith, and Jane Doodle.

Incorrect: The three candidates are: Doe, Smith, and Doodle.

Capitalize the first word after a colon only if it is a proper noun or the start of a complete sentence: He promised this: The company will make good all the losses. But: There were three considerations: time, expense, and feasibility.

EMPHASIS: The colon often can be effective in giving emphasis: He had only one hobby: eating.

PLACEMENT WITH QUOTATION MARKS: Colons go outside quotation marks unless they are part of the quotation itself.

comma (,) The following guidelines treat some of the most frequent questions about the use of commas.

IN A SERIES: Use a comma to separate the elements in a series. Place a comma before the concluding conjunction in the series. He had taken exams in algebra, trigonometry, and calculus.

WITH EQUAL ADJECTIVES: Use commas to separate a series of adjectives equal in rank. If the commas could be replaced by the word and without changing the sense, the adjectives are equal: a thoughtful, precise manner; a dark, dangerous street.

Use no comma when the last adjective before a noun outranks its predecessors because it is an integral element of a noun phrase, which is the equivalent of a single noun: a cheap fur coat, the old oaken bucket, a new, blue spring bonnet.

WITH CONJUNCTIONS: When a conjunction such as and, but, for, or, nor, because, or so links two clauses that could stand alone as separate sentences, use a comma before the conjunction in most cases. She was glad she had looked, for a man was approaching the house. The school offers courses in art, and it has a fine program in art history.

As a rule of thumb, use a comma if the subject of each clause is expressly stated: We are visiting Washington, and we also plan a side trip to Williamsburg. But no comma is used when the subject of the two clauses is the same and is not repeated in the second clause: We are visiting Washington and plan to see the White House.

WITH NONESSENTIAL CLAUSES: A nonessential clause can be deleted from the sentence without changing the the meaning. A nonessential clause must be set off from the rest of the sentence by commas. Mary, who was the tallest girl in the class, enjoyed science.

Essential clauses are not set off by commas. Essential clauses cannot be eliminated without altering the meaning of the sentence. Writers who do not consult the stylebook should not criticize the editor.

WITH INTRODUCTORY CLAUSES AND PHRASES: A comma is used to separate an introductory clause or phrase from the main clause: When he had tired of the mad pace of New York, he moved to Oberlin.

The comma may be omitted after short introductory phrases if no ambiguity would result: During the night he heard many noises.

INTRODUCING DIRECT QUOTES: Use a comma to introduce a quotation of one or more complete sentences: John said, ‘‘I think it’s time to head home.’’

Do not use a comma at the start of an indirect or partial quotation: He said the victory put him ‘‘firmly on the road to the presidency.’’

BEFORE ATTRIBUTION: Use a comma instead of a period at the end of a quote that is followed by attribution: “I have no comment,” John Doe said.

Do not use a comma if the quoted statement ends with a question mark or exclamation mark: “Go home!” he said.

WITH APPOSITIVES: Unless it is restrictive, a word, phrase, or clause that is in apposition to a noun is usually set off by commas.

Correct: My wife, Elizabeth, wrote to our senator.

Correct: The opposition leader, Senator Smith, introduced new legislation.

Correct: I gave the book to my son Michael. (This is restrictive—I have more than one son.)

Correct: Gail Godwin’s book Evensong is one of my favorite books. (This is restrictive—Godwin has written more than one book.)

NAMES OF STATES AND NATIONS USED WITH CITY His journey will take him from Dublin, Ireland, to Fargo, North Dakota, and back again.

WITH DATES: When a date consists only of a month and year, do not use a comma between them: February 2021.

When a phrase refers to a month, day, and year, set off the year with commas: Feb. 15, 1959, is her birthday.

PLACEMENT WITH QUOTES: Commas always go inside quotation marks.

dash, em dash (—) The dash is typed as an em-dash (shift-option-hyphen on a Mac), with no space between the dash and the words that precede or follow.

Use dashes to denote an abrupt change in thought in a sentence or an emphatic pause*: We’ll fly to Paris in June—if I get a raise. Smith offered a plan—it was unprecedented—to raise revenues.*

When a phrase that would otherwise be set off by commas contains a series of words that must be separated by commas, use dashes to set off the full phrase: He listed the qualities—intelligence, humor, and independence—that he liked in an executive.